从生态批评视角下的对《野性的呼唤》分析：Analysis of The Call of the Wild from the Perspective of Eco-criticism

1. introduction引言

 

1.1 Introduction to the author作者简介

Jack London (1876～1916) formerly named John Griffith London was born in San Francisco. He was a famous American realism writer. In American novelist’s biography, Irving Stone in his book of The Sailor on Horseback said Jack London was the father of proletarian literature. His work was not only famous in the United States, but also widely welcomed all over the world. He wrote more than 50 novels, such as The Martin Iraq ascends, Love of Life, and the Call of the Wild. He had a high position in modern American literature and world literature. 

Jack London was one of the most popular writers of his time and he had been regarded as “the guy of writing dog’s story” by many readers. Jack London’s inspiration had plain languages and dramatic plots. He often put his character in extremely harsh environment, which was vital to exposing the deep, the nature of true character. In his novels, he always praised strength, bravery and admires these human’s noble quality. His works were unique, full of life and masculinity, most welcome for the man. As a result, Irving Stone said, “the American novels before his works are almost for the girls; however his works belong to all the readers, not only the men welcome, but also the females like.” (Irving Stone, 1951:3)

Not only was Jack London a legend in American literature but also he had a high reputation in the world literary. Many of his works were popular at home and abroad. In China, many readers were very familiar with his works, especially the two animal’s novels The Call of the Wild and The White Fang. 

 

1.2 Reviews of the Novel小说的评论
杰克伦敦打破了维多利亚时代的浪漫与抒情风格，然后他就开始来形容生活中的各种真实而又粗糙的东西，并在美国文学中被誉为“粗糙的现实主义”的创始人之一，野性的呼唤就是一个很好的例子。巴克法官米勒的狗被拐卖到别的地方，然后他被来来回回交易了三次。在此期间，狗根据环境的改变也发生了性格的改变。环境改变了巴克的精心喂养的狗，他变得狡猾，残暴的味道充满了血液，他不再是狗，而变得象一只狼。野性的呼唤是生态批评标本的研究。在小说中，作者展示了生态文学与巴克的线索。笔者展示主角的命运，反映自然与文明的冲突。#p#分页标题#e#

Jack London broke the Victorian romanticism and sentimentalism style, and then he began to describe life’s rough pronouncing and be a founder of “Rough realism” in American literature. The Call of the Wild was a good example. Buck was a dog of Judge Miller’s. He was kidnapped and sold because of being taken in easily, and then he was handed three times. During this period, all the time he was encountered with three aspects of challenges— man, dogs and the nature. Environment changed Buck, the well-fed dog to be a sly, atrocious taste blood, the wolf-dog. The Call of the Wild was the study of ecological criticism specimen. In novel, the author displayed the ecological literature with the clue of Buck. The author displayed the fate of protagonist which reflected the clash of nature and civilization. 
 

Ecological criticism originated in the United States. In The Silent Spring, Rachel Carson made the thought of ecological criticism pervasive. Ecological criticism was the new trend of thought in western countries. A widely accepted definition had been offered by Cheryll Glotfelty in her book The Eco-criticism Reader Landmarks in Literary Ecology: “Simply put，eco-criticism was the study of the relationship between literature and the physical environment. Just as feminist criticism examines language and literature from a gender-conscious perspective, and Marxist criticism brings an awareness of modes of production and economic class to its reading of texts, eco-criticism takes an earth-centered approach to literary studies.”(Cheryll Glotfelty & Harold Fromm,1996) 

In modern times, China was drawn into the vehicles of western modernization, the relationship between human and nature became distant. So, with the Ecological crisis, the Chinese experts also had a thought that combining the literature with ecological criticism, such as Prof. Lu Shuyuan and Prof. Miao Fuguang. Literary criticism of Jack London had proliferated since the 1970s. Some critics analyzed his works as realistic, some as naturalistic and some commented him as a proletarian writer. “London was a paradoxical figure and this may be one of the many reasons why he and his works were still studied throughout the world besides his rich and colorful description, vivid characterization and accurate psychoanalysis of the characters in his works especially of animals.”(Zhang Lu, 2007.12:4)

 

1.3 Significance of this Paper意义

The United States witnessed the most exciting period in its history in 1886—The Gold Rush in the Arctic region. Many gold prospectors left their home to the Klondike for finding gold. In the following year, Jack London also came into the Klondike area because he liked adventurous life. However his purpose in finding gold was unsuccessful, so he came back to San Francisco. The experiences for the novel laid a solid foundation for writing the novel. As London himself said,” It was in the Klondike I found myself. There nobody talked. Everyone thought. You got true perspective. I got mine.”(Walker, 1994:3) Walker also pointed out that “Talk he said, but most important of all, he listened and observed during those months in the draughty cabins near the mouth of the Stewart. He stored memories and felt the stirring of the creative artist.”(Walker, 1994:4) London gained a tremendous amount of insight and perspective and got an abundance of notes and memories which was richer than the gold.#p#分页标题#e#
 

Literary research was closely connected with the times. Along with the developing of the society, the global ecological criticism was increasingly serious. The human being wanted to find a way to deal with the relationship between the nature and him. So, it was necessary to do some research with the animal novel. We realized some clashes with the civilization and the nature. Recently, the animal novels reflected the value. There were much profound point views in The Call of the Wild, which human beings mirrored themselves through the animal’s eyes. It was necessary and meaningful to reread the novel from a brand new perspective, the perspective of ecological criticism.
 

The thesis would analyze how the anti-anthropocentrism was reflected through  the analyzing the relationship between the human and nature (dog). The novel，The Call of the Wild，had been treated as an animal allegory. It was a very colorful and splendid book of London. The protagonist was a dog (Buck). London liked to use animals to image the American gold prospectors’ dream in the west. On the one hand, it was obvious that Jack London himself criticized civilization and reflected the value of nature. On the other hand, he contemplated human existence and relationship between man and nature. One important motive of ecological criticism was to revitalize literary study and helped solve some of the questions concerning our global and local ecology. It was worthwhile to study London’s animal novel from the perspective of ecological criticism in an attempt to redirect human consciousness to a full consideration of its place in a threatened natural world.
 

Ecological criticism, known as green studies, was the criticism from an ecological perspective on literary of human experience in the world, concentrating on the relationship between humans and environment. “Ecological criticism, also called studies of literature and environment，is one of the 1atest literary critical approaches in western literary circles.” (Zhang Lu, 2007:5) Cheryll Glotfelty，professor of literature and environment at the University of Nevada and also one of the main American advocates of eco-criticism，for the first time remarked: “Simply defined，eco-criticism is the study of the relationship between literature and the physical environment. Eco-criticism takes an earth—centered approach to literary studies” (Glotfelty,1996:77).

 

2. Social Background influence upon the Author Eco-criticism Consciousness根据作者的生态批评意识的社会背景的影响

The principle, anti-anthropocentrism included two parts in the paper. They were respect life and ecological holism. Buck’s return to nature was to challenge human civilization, indicating that the anthropocentrism dissolved. This was the perfect reappearance of anti-anthropocentrism outlook which consisted of the integration between human and nature, the equality of species and reverence of life.#p#分页标题#e#

 

2.1 Criticizing the Behaviors of Conquering Nature 批评的征服自然的行为

Buck’s survival experiences were full of competing with others—nature, dogs and human. It was true portraiture of American capitalist society. 

The late 19th century, it was a transformation period for America from agricultural society to industrial society. In industrial time, American regarded the value of nature as a tool which they wanted to achieve fame and wealth. People only knew to take the nature endless. The society was full of cheating and law of the jungle. That laid a foundation for Jack London to write the book. The society was the background of Buck’s survival environment. In the first 20th century, North America discovered gold mineral resources. A large number of gold prospectors were driven by the pecuniary benefit, they came into the calm and harmonious wilderness and exploited the gold mineral resources. They squandered and destroyed the local natural resources. Jack London used his sharp pen to expose the ugly behaviors incisively and vividly.
 

Rachel Carson pointed out: the root which humans subjugate and rule the nature was the anthropocentrism, which dominated the human consciousness and behaviors for thousands of years. In The Call of the Wild, Buck could handle various dangerous situations, and he knew how to turn the corner in case of crisis. Jack London depicted Buck on ecological vision to highlight his strong surviving desire and ability. Jack London used anti-anthropocentrism to expose Buck’s thoughts and behaviors. It was a part respecting life.
 

In the novel, everywhere could see Jack London praising Buck. For example, “A carnivorous animal living on a straight meat diet, he was in full flower, at the high tide of his life, over spilling with vigor and virility. When Thornton passed a caressing hand along his back, a snapping and crackling followed the hand, each hair discharging its pent magnetism at the contact. Every part, brain and body, nerve tissue and fiber, was keyed to the most exquisite pitch; and between all the parts there was a perfect equilibrium.” (Jack London, 1984:75) Here Jack London described the dog no longer as traditional simply tools and accessories, just as the life powerhouse. Buck had his own vale and significance of his life. That was without a doubt that was an anthropocentrism criticism. The novel criticized the human’s subjugated and nature’s rule from the root. On the novel Buck’s animal rights were displayed. It was reverence of life.

 

2.2 Criticizing So-called Human Civilization批评所谓人类文明

At Jack London’s time, the world was experiencing an explosion of radical ideas. London’s age was just the time in which rapid development of human civilization, he had contact with the civilized world which was a distortion. Jack London hated the so-called the civilized world with bitter hatred. He charged and criticized the civilized world of its evil and ugliness in the book—The Call of the Wild. Compared with Buck’s bravery, wisdom and loyalty, other humans’ roles appearing in the novel were the image of hate, evil intention and their behaviors were shameful. This was an anthropocentrism criticism. It criticized the so-called human civilization.#p#分页标题#e#
 

While the lives of Buck had in stark contrast to each other, it was typical of Buck revolting the human civilization. His life with Judge Miller was leisurely, calm, and unchallenging, while his transition to the wildness showed his life savage, frenetic and demanding. These two lives were polar opposites that were the satire for the so-called human civilization.
 

Firstly, the fact that Buck was faithful to his human host made his fate changeful. His life was advanced civilized social, suddenly dropped to the other extreme, a difficult life which was full of cheating and fighting against each other. In the first life Buck passed the days in indolence, but another life he must fight for survival. In the so-called civilized society, Buck was sold as commodities again and again. During this period, he had been tortured and insulted. Also the so-called civilized persons’ hypocrisy here was exposed undoubtedly. Finally, Buck saw the human “civilized society” clearly, returned to the nature. Buck got rid of the human civilization, and returned to the wildness. The event made it clear that the so-called civilized world which seemed so strong, turned out to be nothing more than a thin veneer, which was quickly worn away to reveal the ancient instincts lying dormant underneath.
 

“The technical term for what happened Buck was atavism—the reappearance in a modern creature of traits that defined its remote forebears.”(Qu Li, 2003:29) London returned to this theme again and again, constantly reminded us that Buck was “retrogressing,” as the novel put it, into a wilder way of life that all dogs once shared. From the perspective of Buck, we could see that Buck was one aspect of the American social reality. Through the animal horizon, the recurrence of Buck’s wildness revealed the nature of brutal American society —the inhumanity, and cheating between humans. It was the purpose of Jack London which made people see the so-called “civilized” world.

 

2.3 Criticizing the Expansion of Human Desires批评人类欲望的膨胀

Some said that desire was a giant power which could promote social progress. However in ecologists’ eyes, the desire was just like devil in bottle, once released it would be difficult to effectively control and would bring about great disaster. With the development of human society, people’s need for material wealth swelled rapidly, so contradiction between the persons’ unlimited desires and limited supplies of nature would be sharper and sharper. In the novel, the author criticized human desires in two parts: the large desires led the man to exploit nature crazily, and the large desire killed the human beings’ kindness and beauty. Just like the fact that Buck could hear the call of wild, and ran into the wildness. This criticized the anthropocentrism which dominated the human consciousness and behaviors for thousands of years #p#分页标题#e#

At the beginning of the novel, author gave us the background of the story which the discovery of gold mineral resources in North America had a strong gold rush. In order to satisfy the unlimited wealth desires of human, the crazy gold prospectors did not let slip the nature which was no much left on the white pure land. They not only damaged local nature resources, ecological balance, but also threatened the local residents—Indians interests and life safety. In order to obtain the limited gold mineral resources, they killed each other. Thus, material desire inflation was not only destroyed natural resources, but also hurt humans themselves. The desire pushed the man to lose his pure and good nature. As the anthropocentric thoughts, the desires controlled humans themselves. This event was just as the anthropocentrism which believed that the human beings were the only creatures that had the intrinsic values. Human beings only had direct responsibilities for their own species and indirect obligation for nature. In this novel, the writer directly satirized the human’s desires.

In the novel, the author’s anti-anthropocentrism consciousness was influence on the social background. The 19th century, America stepped into industrial society, the value and the civilization were distortion with the developing. London hated which included in the book. From the three aspects —criticizing the behaviors of conquering nature, criticizing so-called human civilization and criticizing the expansion of human desires, Jack London represented his ecological crticism consciousness— anti-anthropocentrism. In the book, the relationship between dog and some of his masters belonged to one of controlling and being controlled. The theme of the novel was Buck returning the nature. That was obvious that Jack London expressed his anti-anthropocentrism views in the novel.

 

3. Anti-anthropocentric Analysis of the Novel 小说的反人类中心主义分析

In modern times, people emphasized the “anthropocentrism” that made the contradiction between man and nature, the result was that environmental pollution became more and more serious and ecological balance was disturbed, until that would be endangering the survival of mankind. In the 20th century, this ecological crisis developed revolution of green ecological consciousness, prompted literature and ecological environment of combination which produced ecological criticism. Ecological criticism was a fresh literary theory of postmodern literature criticism; it aimed to awakening people’s ecological consciousness through literary studies. However, ecological consciousness had not achieved purpose to solve the environmental crisis. Recently, some ecological critics broke limitations of the ecological criticism, created a pathway which assumed responsibility in research practice. It just was necessary to establish a species equality, the ecological balance by literary studies.#p#分页标题#e#
 

The anthropocentric philosophies were based on a “human-centered” principle, which meant human beings played the dominant role in the human-nature relationship.(Zhang Lu, 2007:7) Nature, understood with just “use-value”, meant humans’ economic goods. The central point of anthropocentrism was that nature existed for itself. Anthropocentrism believed that human beings were the only creatures that had the intrinsic values. Plants and animals must be intended for human beings to be food or clothing or other instruments. Since all the other creatures existed for human beings rather than for themselves, it was not only natural but also reasonable for human to rule nature for the welfare of humans themselves. But anti-anthropocentrism was opposite theory.
 

The novel actually focused on the relationships between the dog and its owner. So we realized that the novel creatively embodied eco-critical idea from various perspectives. In addition, the dog stood for nature; the owners were human beings. Their contradiction was just like human and nature. In finally, Buck returned back to the wild just like the nature caution. 

Although The Call of the Wild was told from the perspective of a third-person narrator, the events that were recounted were those that the dog Buck experienced directly. In the story Buck was not only a dog, but also he was more human than many of the people around him. It just was the typical of anti-anthropocentrism.

 

3.1 Reverences for Life in the Novel  生活在小说

Reverence for life and love was a important part of ecological criticism. All were equal, and all lives were awesome which needed to be respected and cared. In The Call of the Wild, the author depicted the “dog” thoughts and emotions incisively and vividly from multidimensional view, praised the wolf-dog’s virtue to notice the distinctness of natural life. From the wolf-dog sensible world opened its spiritual mysteries: animals had an ability of challenging pain, longing for happiness, yearning for life, which would arouse humans’ ecological ethics consciousness of the respect for life.
 

Buck, the dog protagonist in The Call of the Wild, had met five different masters during his process from civilization to decivilization. In the novel, four of his masters treated him very cruelly. It was obvious that the author really criticized human beings’ controlling behavior over the animals. Since the Buck’s neck roped bedding bag, and it suffered great pain, his rights for happiness rights was deprived by the human. “Dazed, suffering intolerable pain from throat and tongue, with the life half throttled out of him, Buck attempted to face his tormentors.” (Jack London, 1984:5) He desperately ferocious bitted and resisted. Later on, Buck was imprisoned in the cage. Facing with hunger, thirst, plus the red man’s stick, it was comatose. After waking up, Buck found that the purpose of humans’ giving him the pain just was to make him tame. Facing death, Buck submitted to the human. Buck chose survival that expressed the respect for life. When he wanted to work on his good duty by step and step, he met the Hal, Charles and Mercedes. They were very cruel. The big stick and lack foods made the dog tired in the wild. They only rely on the dog. “He… with a rod beat up to dogs… The sticks… heavy made the sled dogs of dying. But, Hal wanted to move on…” (Jack London, 1984:70) Their weak and foolish behavior had its own reward—death in the icy waters of a northern river. The different fate of Hal, Thornton saved Buck and rendered it much happiness, this made Buck also again and again desperately save Thornton’s life. It told us that we must respect nature and respect life. That nature would pay back for human. Buck’s trip of life inspired people: animals and people both had their rights for enjoyment  and pursuit in life. Any behaviors that caused animal’s pain would be against the balance of ecology. Human beings should be “expand grief feelings, hug natural things.” (Wynne Tyson,1989：76) Only in this way, could we build a “more social, environmental of justice society.”(Joni Adamson, 2001：99)#p#分页标题#e#

 

 

3.2 Ecological Holism in the Novel生态整体观

Unity were the core of ecological ideology. It emphasized the decenter of the media, namely people and nature was an organic whole; People and other species should be mutually dependent in the dynamic balance of natural conserved the ecological beauty, stability and integrity. Leopold also said, “when a things help protect biological community harmony and stability, and beauty, it is correct, when it toward the opposite, is wrong.” (Wang Nuo, 2003：42、41)

First, mankind found their root in the wildness: they must comprehend the relationship between the man and nature. In the novel the author chose the wildness as the background to reveal that man came from nature, was a part of nature. “Wilderness in history and now are our ‘roots’ lies.”(Holmes Rolston, 2000:210) In the novel, Jack London chose the wildness as the background that he wanted to make the man in the wild foregrounding, made it return to nature, blend in nature, comprehend nature. This was “the ecological holism and American ecological literature criticism using the wilderness for touchstone to promote an authenticity of poetry.” (Greg Garrard, 2004：71) Namely it was a reflection in ecological science under the guidance of poetic responsibility.
 

To use the metaphor of nature was the wilderness. Choosing wilderness background made people really go into natural, realistically felt about nature. The novel was about description of the wild, the natural wildness had also been suggested that facing natural human was helpless. Human wanted to use stick uniform Buck’s wild, but when Buck went into the wildness, his “were dead instinct again resurrected.”(Jack London, 1984:38) Wilderness deduced a song which was symphony movement of the natural life, showed natural charisma, and people with other animals were only small notes in natural movement.
 

Second, the journey of human’s wilderness made people updated an idea of wilderness, then stepped on the journey of harmony with nature. Since always, human put wilderness as a kind of “resource”, thought wilderness should serve for mankind, “reservation wilderness was not for the animals or plants, only for human.” (Holmes Rolston, 2000:212) That was the anthropocentric idea. Jack London criticized this idea. In the book, the author from both the positive and negative sides reflected different attitudes toward natural wilderness. One was that a person robbed nature and trampled upon other biological. The other was that people cared about and showed the consideration for nature and other creatures. People (gold prospectors) with their inviolable dominator identities went into the wilderness; their purposes were developing and plundering wilderness resources to meet their desires. Buck was a dog only faithful to his master, and coexisted with mankind harmoniously. However, because he had faith in humanity, he was sold to the north by dog dealer. So Buck embarked on a wildness journey. Meanwhile, Buck tasted the service— “stick and fangs” severe from human beings, gradually lost confidence of staying harmonious. That was the feral motive for regression. Buck’s natural regression adumbrated that the form was disintegration within the love missing, since ancient times they formed dogs and human form— “life and community of interests”. Human sentiment and the right of the animal were natural, harmonious unity. If humanity was lack of love and affection, animal was irrational whatsoever, natural harmonious unification could not be realized. The reverse was too. This was fully explained “humans and nature of separation, not only in our development of culture, but also with amazing to rebuild the environment.” (Holmes Rolston,2000:204)#p#分页标题#e#

It told us that: humans’ nature must change; it should be on humanism ecological road, maintain the root of life within love and justice, rather than trampling the nature on “human-centered” principle, so on the tree of humanity would be harmonious and beautiful, stable and complete in natural forever.

 

4. Conclusion结论

Through the detailed analysis of this paper, it was told that ecological consciousness was reflected in the novel. Jack London analyzed the attitudes human had towards dog and the different fates of dog owners. Obviously, the author criticized human-centered views on dog and showed great sympathy for him. Moreover, London paid more attention to dog himself. Dog had his intrinsic value. He was loyal to his masters, and he had self-respect. Jack London established an opinion that dog should be respected by humans and dog was equal to human. He advocated that all life forms had their value for existence.
 

Return to natural was the eternal theme and dream of ecological literature. The Call of the Wild was told a story of dog from civilization to the wild regression. That was author criticizing the anthropocentrism. The fact that Buck finally returned to the nature expressed the author’s yearning for the human and harmonious nature. In nature, Buck completely belonged to the natural and could perfectly blend in nature, reached the balance between nature and animals. The work not only interpreted the human survival reality, but also revealed the importance of human re-examining nature and practical action that was necessary to participate in the construction of ecological civilization. In other words, man had to constantly return to nature, that could read nature, feel nature and reflect the relationship between man and nature, so “in accepting responsibility for nature and exploring the world meaningful response”.(Scott Slovic，2008:3)

It was author’s reverence for natural and affection, and he conveyed the sense of belonging to the root of nature and the love for creatures. He wanted to arouse people’s ecological consciousness, arouse people’s ecological responsibility to take immediate actions to protect environment.
 

Therefore, to analyze Jack London’s animal novel from perspective of ecological criticism has not only theoretical meanings but also practical meanings. Along with the advance of society, the global ecological crisis deepenes, studying the book— The Call of the Wild again is quite profound. The Call of the Wild could help awaken humans’ responsibility of nature and social mission. There is no center in the ecosystem. Humans need to develop harmony with nature and both of them will benefit from harmony. Humans are obligatory to relieve and even eliminate the ecological crises and restore ecological balance.

 

Bibliography文献参考#p#分页标题#e#

 

Adamson, Joni: American Indian Literature,Environmental Justice, and Ecocritieism,  [M]. University of Arizona Press, 2001: 99.

Abranam，Rothberg: Introduction to The Call of the Wild and White Fang [M] Bantam Books lnc. 1984: 7.

Athens: Ecology, University of Georgia Press, 1996.

Cheryll Glotfelty&Harold Fromm: The Eco-criticism Reader, The University of Georgia Press, 1996: xviii.

Garrard Greg: Eco-criticism, [M]. London and New York: Routledge, 2004: 71.

Greg Garrard: 

Irving Stone: Sailor on horseback ,the biography of Jack London, [M] .

 

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